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The following History Notes are from the archives of my Grandfather, Shamsunder Makhija, who was a student of Campion High School in the 1950’s. The then History teacher was Fr. Merrifield. And his History notes were noted for their simplicity and precise narration of facts. The entire notes are reproduced below. CONTENTS * Relations between the Great Powers One of the significant developments that have changed the course of history was the unification of Germany under the leadership of Prussia. Paradoxically, it was Napoleon who took the first step towards German unity. After overrunning the various German states and defeating the combined armies of Austria and Russia at Austerlitz, Napoleon formed a political union of German states called the “Confederation of the Rhine.” Hence Napoleon first gave the idea of national unity. He gave them a system of unity and efficiency such as they had never seen before. The next step towards Germany unity was taken in the direction of commerce. Led by Prussia, the German states entered into a Zolerverin or Customized Union to avoid the tariff duties levied by each member of the Confederation on another. This commercial unity led to the political unity of Germany. Finally, it was Otto Von Bismarck, the prime minister of Germany who unified Germany with his policy of “Blood and Iron.” To achieve his aim, he waged three important wars, namely : a. War with Denmark (1864) b. War with Austria (1866) c. War with France (1870-71) a. War with Denmark (1864) : The two Dutchies of Schelsweig and Holsteil were inhabited largely by the Germans, but ruled by the King of Denmark. Bismarck united them to agitate for their union with Germany with the help of Austria. Bismarck sent the Prussian armies into the Danish Dutchies and annexed them to Prussia. b. War with Austria (1866) : Though Austria helped Prussia in the war with Denmark, she did not get any territory. Austria was discontented with the growing power of Prussia. So a war began between Prussia and Austria. The Prussian general Von Moltke inflicted a crushing defeat on the Russians at Sadova. Austria was compelled to accept the Peace Treaty of Prague, by which she agreed to withdraw from the German Confederation and recognize any reconstruction of Germany led by Prussia. Prussia annexed the hostile states and Hanover, Hessecassel, Frankfurt and Nassan and constructed a new German Federation. c. War with France (1870-71) : Bismarck had only one more enemy to deal with, and he was Napoleon III of France. He was jealous of the growing power of Prussia. He interfered in the matters of southern German states and persuaded them not to join with Prussia. It was his belief that the southern states would join the new confederation only when threatened by a foreign power. Hence he began to provoke Napoleon in all possible ways. Napoleon III thought that he could strengthen his prestige in France and also restore the prestige of France by a successful war with Prussia. Immediate Cause : In 1868, a revolution in Spain deposed Queen Isbella and the Spaniards offered the crown to Leopold William I of Prussia. Napoleon III objected to it on the round that it would upset the “Balance of Power” in Europe. So Leopold withdrew his acceptance of the crown. To get a diplomatic victory, Napoleon asked his ambassador to demand from King William I of Prussia and assure him that he would never in future permit a renewal of Napoleon’s candidature. The Prussian king refused this demand and sent a telegram from Ems to Bismarck informing him of what had happened. Bismarck altered the version of the telegram in such a way that it hurt the feelings of both the French and the Prussians. So a war began between France and Prussia. The war roused the patriotism of Germany. The southern states made common cause with the north, contrary to Napoleon’s expectations. The German army led by General Von Moltake invaded France. The French were defeated at Worth and Metz. Ad Sedan, the whole French army surrendered to General von Moltke and Napoleon III was taken prisoner. Paris was captured. The finishing touch to the unification of Germany was given in 1871 by the proclamation of Kaiser William I as the Emperor of Germany in the famous “Hall of Mirrors” at Versailles. The new German empire annexed the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. The empire was a federation in which Prussia enjoyed great powers.
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The Italian Unification is one of the romantic episodes in the history of Europe. The unification of Italy is an outstanding achievement in the 19th century. The French Revolution produced in Italians, a sense of nationalism. Napoleon gave the first impulse to Italian unification. He drove away the Austrians and the Bourbons at Sadova. The Papal states were annexed and a uniform system of law and order was established everywhere. In fact, Napoleon infused incautiously into Italians, the spirit of nationalism. 1st Italian Revolution (1820-21) : Early in the 19th century, national feeling in Italy was stirred by revolutionary secret societies known as Carbonari. The Carbonari wanted to overthrow foreign rule imposed by the Vienna settlement and unify Italy. The movement was known as Risogermento. But Prince Metternich intervened and crushed all movements. 2nd Italian Revolution (1830) : In July, 1830, when a revolution in France placed Lauio Philip on the throne and established a constitutional monarch, there were outbreaks in the papal states. But the Austrians crushed the rebellion. 3rd Italian Revolution (1848) : In July, 1848, Joseph Mazzini wanted to expel the foreign government from Italy, end the temporal authority of the Pope over the Papal states, and unit the whole of Italy under a Republican government. To carry out his ideals, he established, in 1831, a movement known as “Young Italy.” The young men of “Young Italy” lit the flames of patriotism throughout Italy and helped the cause of Italian unification. During the 1848 revolution, the Italian provinces were supported by Charles Albert. But the Austrian army crushed the revolt at Custozza near Venice. But Mazzini roused the people of the Papal states against the Pope. The Pope was expelled from Rome and a Republic was proclaimed under a committee of three, of which Mazzini was one. But the French troops overthrew the Republic. The Austrians defeated Charles Albert at Navora and he abdicated in favor of his son, Victor Emmanuel II. 4th and Final Revolution (1854-70) : Count Cavour, the “Bismarck” of Italy realized that without any external help, Italy could never be free. By a stroke of diplomatic genius, he offered the services of Scandinavian troops to Napoleon III at a critical stage of the Crimean war. This act enabled him to claim a prominent place in the Peace Conference at Paris (1856), where he won the active support of Napoleon III at Plombieres in 1858. Having secured formal pledge of French support, Cavour was able to wage a war with Austria. The Italians aided by Napoleon III defeated the Austrians at Magenta and Solferino in 1859. Napoleon suddenly withdrew his support and made the truce of Villa – France with Austria. By it, Sardinia was to gain Lomardy, and Austria retained Venice. The Dutchies of Tuscani, Parma, Modena and Ramanga expelled their despotic rulers and joined with Sardinia. The next stage of Italian unification is connected with the exploits of Joseph Garibalte. In 1860, the people of Napes and Sicily rose against the Bourbon King Francies II. Garibalte along with his volunteers landed in Sicily and annexed the two kingdoms to Sardinia. Victor Emmanuel himself led an army into the Papal states and defeated the Papal forces at Casgifigaria. In 1861, the first Italian Parliament except Rome met at Turin and conferred upon Victor Emmanuel II, the title of “King of Italy.” Venetia was held by the Austrians, and Rome by the Pope, with the assistance of the French army. In the Astro-Prusssian war of 1866, also known as the Seven Weeks War, Victor Emmanuel II helped Prussia. Austria was defeated at Sadova. In the Treaty of Prague that followed, Italy obtained Venice as the price of her help to Prussia. The disasters of France during the Franco-Prussian war led to the withdrawal of the French garrison from Rome, which was then easily occupied by an Italian army. Rome became the capital of the united Italian kingdom. The Pope was confined to the Vatican Palace. Thus the unification of Italy was achieved by the political philosophy of Joseph Mazzini, the diplomacy of Count Cavour, the sound common sense and discretion of the King of Piedmont, and the sword of Joseph Garibalte, the knight errant. Relations between the Pope and the Kingdom of Italy were not happy. Benito Mussolini by the Lateran treaty of 1929 ended the long standing question by recognizing the absolute sovereignty of the Pope over the Vatican.
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The Russian Revolution of 1917 is one of the greatest events in the 20th century. As the French Revolution of 1789, it is also an epoch making event in the history of the world. This revolution was directed towards the complete overthrow of capitalism and to the establishment of a worker’s dictatorship based on economic equality. The revolution was not a sudden outbreak. It was the result of different forces. It was the First World War of 1914 which immediately paved the way for the revolution. Here are some of the important causes for the revolution.
1. Despotism of the Czars : Russia was ruled by the Czars who were absolute monarchs. There was no personal liberty. The people were never cared for. The Czar was misguided by his advisors. The people murdered the chief advisor of the Czar, Rasputin. This infuriated the Czar, who oppressed the people much more than before. People were imprisoned or exiled to Siberia. Moreover, Czar Nicholas II was weak and incompetent. He was under the spell of his wife. Hence the people revolted. 2. The poor economic condition of the peasants : The second reason was social insecurity which prevailed in Russia. The peasants as a low class were kept down socially and economically. They were also poor and illiterate. Wealth was concentrated in the hands of a few rich people, who did not pay taxes. The desire for economic equality led to the revolution. 3. The conditions of the industrial workers : The Industrial Revolution which spread to Russia in the latter part of the 19th century led to the rise of industrial workers. The discontented peasants drifted into industrial towns, where they were exploited by the capitalists. They were paid very low wages. Their discontentment found expression in the Revolution. 4. Revolutionary Propaganda – The Intellectual Awakening : As in the case of the French Revolution, the Russian Revolution was also influenced by writers. The writings of Karl Marx, Leo Tolstoy, Trotsky, Maxim and Gorky produced an intellectual awakening in Russia. Das Capital of Karl Marx exercised great influence on the minds of the people. The writers pictured the miserable conditions of the peasants and the workers. They wanted to establish a communistic society by overthrowing the Czardom. The result of this propaganda was that the soldiers refused to take up arms, and the workers struck work. 5. Immediate Cause – Defeat at the hands of Germany in the Great War of 1914 : Russia was already defeated by a small country, Japan, in the Russo Japanese war of 1905 and had lost prestige. Again defeat, disaster and degradation in the First World War of 1914 was the immediate cause that led to the revolution. Famine went hand in hand with the war. The administration became so rotten and corrupt, that people lost faith in the government of the Czar. The inefficiency of the Russian army served as another cause for the Revolution. Course of the Revolution of 1917 The Russian Revolution of 1917 occurred in 2 stages. The first was the overthrow of the autocratic regime of the Czar and the establishment of a liberal regime under Kerensky. Kerensky was not able to solve the food problem, nor was he able to infuse any enthusiasm among the soldiers. The second stage was the overthrow of the Kerensky Regime (the Mensheviks) and the establishment of the regime of the workers by Lenin, Trotsky and Stalin. Lenin’s program – bread for all and immediate peace – land of the peasants and the dictatorship of the workers – received the widest support from the people. With their support, the Kerensky government was overthrown. A Soviet government was set up with supreme powers. The main instruments of Lenin’s power were : * A highly organized Communist Party * A secret police system known as Ogpu * The Red Army Lenin immediately stopped the war with Germany and signed the treaty of Brest-Liyovsk and withdrew. He introduced a number of reforms in the country, by which he created a new order and ushered in the era of Communism. Industry after industry were nationalized. He established the dictatorship of the workers (pralateriat). The March Revolution of 1917, the first stage had overthrown autocracy in Russia, while the November Revolution had set up the dictatorship of the workers. Results of the Revolution of 1917 1. The immediate result of the revolution was the overthrow of monarch in Russia. Russia became a Republic. 2. The Revolution set up a totalitarian state which disregarded the rights of the individual. According to this type of state, the individual exists for the welfare of the state; and not the state for the good of the people. 3. Russia set up a propaganda machine known as Communist International to spread communism. Anti-communistic movements were started in Italy and Germany. Facism in Italy, and Nazism in Germany originated as a result of the spread of communism. 4. Though the revolution inflicted misery on the people; it made Russia economically strong and politically powerful. Stalin became the dictator of Russia. He industrialized Russia by means of the Five – Year Plans. If today, Russia is a great power making remarkable scientific and technological progress and exploring space, it is due to the Russian Revolution.
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Relations between Great Powers The period from 1870 to 1914 is known as the “Age of Armed Truce.” The system of great European alliances started by Bismarck led to war in the 20th century. His anxiety to keep Germany strong and France weak and friendless induced him to form various alliances. 1. Drei – Kaiser Bund : League of 3 Emperors : Having annexed Alsace a Loraine and finally unifying Germany, Bismarck’s chief concern was to protect Germany from a possible attack from France. So, his plan was to leave France friendless and isolated, and at the same time made friends with other nations. So he fromed the Drei Kaiser Bund or the League of 3 Emperors. i.e. the Emperors of Germany, Austria and Russia. 2. Triple Alliance : In the Congress of Berlin in 1878, to settle the European question, rising out of the Russian-Turkish war, Bismarck favored Austria. Realizing that Russia had been offended, Bismarck formed a closer union with Austria. Thus was formed the Astro-German Treaty of 1879, which was aimed directly against Russia and to a lesser degree against France. Russia withdrew from the Drei – Kaiser Bund and looked for other reliable friends and allies. In order to create one more enemy for France and win the friendship of Italy, Bismarck secretly advised France to seize Tunis which Bismarck had secretly coveted for himself. Thus Bismarck lured Italy into the alliance. Thus was formed the Triple Alliance of 1882. 3. Dual Alliance : The position of France after 1870 was very critical due to Bismarck’s diplomatic activities. Russia was the only great power likely to give France a secure alliance. Bismarck had offended Russia at the Congress of Berlin. Hence, for both political and financial (Russia was helped financially in the construction of the Trans-Siberian Railway) reasons, Russia and France became closer. Thus was formed the Dual Alliance. 4. Entente Cordiale : Both France and Great Britain sought closer friendship, as both of them had the common dread of the imperialism of Germany. The result was the Entente Cordiale between France and Great Britain. 5. Triple Entente : Since Russia’s efforts to expand was prevented by France and Britain in the West, Russia turned towards the East. In this effort too, she was confronted by Japan. The humiliating defeat of Russia in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05 removed the fear of Russia, which Great Britain had. The ambition of Germany on the strength of the Triple brought Russia and Great Britain together. The Entente Cordial was extended to Russia. Thus was formed the Triple Entente, which was the answer to Germany’s Triple Alliance. Thus Europe was divided into 2 armed camps. The 2 camps faced each other with utmost vigilance and suspicion. The whole of Europe was in a state of war. Thus Europe was a veritable powder magazine, and a small spark might set it ablaze.
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The Great War of 1914 was the culmination of the developments that had been going on for a long time. Its causes are to be sought in the intermingling of various forces and tendencies which had been at work for a very long time among the nations of Europe. Some of the basic origins of the conflict were the following :
1. Aggressive Nationalism : First among the fundamental causes of the was the force of nationalism, one of the heritages of the French Revolution. It inflamed the racial pride of the people and made them arrogant. As a matter of fact, excess of nationalism was at the back of most of the causes that led to the war. It was this outraged nationalism which created bitterness between France and Germany and Siberia and Austria – Hungary. 2. Imperialism : As a result of the geographical discoveries and the Industrial Revolution of 1832, the European Powers began to build up large empires and acquire colonies. The expanding search for colonies and markets abroad led to large scale rivalries and resulted in the war. 3. Colonial and commercial rivalry between England and Germany : Great Britain established a vast colonial empire on which “the sun never set” and attained the honor of being called the “Mistress of the Seas.” London became the center of international economics. The Emperor of Germany Kaiser Williams II declared that the future of Germany lay upon the water. Since the navy was considered the backbone of any commercial and imperial nation, the Kaiser began to build a powerful navy that would challenge the imperial and naval supremacy of England. In all this, England saw a threat to her security. 4. The system of secret military alliances : Before 1914, Europe was divided into 2 armed camps, namely the Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente. England, France and Russia formed the Triple Entente. German, Astro – Hungary and Italy formed the Triple Alliance. There was not only jealously, but also enemity between the 2 camps. 5. Militarism – Race in armaments : Each country began to increase its military and naval strength. Most of the countries introduced conscriptions and produced new weapons of mass destruction. Thus Europe was enveloped by an atmosphere of fear and this led to the Cold War situation. 6. Franco-German rivalry over Alsace and Lorraine : Germany annexed the French territories of Alsace and Lorraine in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. The loss of these territories greatly hindered the industrial and economic development of France. Hence France wanted to regain these territories at any cost and Germany took counter measures. 7. Italy’s desire for irredentism : Though the year 1870 marked the end of the era of Italian unification, the question of Italian irrendethita rose. The Italians would not rest until all lands once forming part of the famous Roman Empire were redeemed to them. 8. The Balkan question : In 1908, Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, two Balkan states. Serbia wanted these two states for herself. So she appealed to Russia for help. The Austrian annexation of 1908 resulted in bitter enmity between Austria and Serbia and finally led to the war of 1914. 9. Violation of the Belgian neutrality : Belgium was a neutral country and all the European countries had agreed to respect her neutrality. But Germany sent her troops into Belgium to invade France. This act violated the neutrality of Belgium. Hence England challenged Germany in 1914. 10. Immediate cause – Sarajevo crisis : On 28th June, 1914, in the Bosnian town of Sarajeevo, the Austrian crown prince Franz Ferdinand and his wife were assassinated by a Bosnian student. So Austria sent a warning to Serbia imposing harsh terms. Serbia refused to accept all these conditions. So Austria declared war on Serbia. Russia came to the help of Serbia. Germany went to the help of Austria and declared war on Russia. France by her Dual Alliance went to the help of Russia. So Germany declared war on France. Course of the War Italy, though a member of the Triple Alliance, did not join with Germany and Austria, the Central Powers. Bulgaria and Turkey joined the Central Powers. Italy joined the Allies in 1915 and the USA in 1917. For the first time in history, air was used as a field of war. Poison gas was used by the Germans. Tanks, which were a British invention, were used in the last stages of the war. The First World War was fought on 3 stages – Trench warfare on land, Submarine warfare on sea, and air force in air. War on the Western Front : German forces overran the whole of Belgium and invaded France. An Anglo-French army checked the progress of the German troops on the banks of the Marre. In 1916, the Germans attempted to capture Verdum, a French fortress, but failed to take it. In the North Sea off Jutland, a naval engagement took place between British and German fleets. Germany resorted to ruthless submarine warfare and inflicted heavy damages on the ships of all countries, especially the USA. This act of Germany forced US President Woodrow Wilson to declare war on Germany. The entry of the USA was a great boon to the Allies. War on the Eastern Front : Russia invaded East Prussia, but was confronted by the German army at Tannenburg. In the meantime, Germany had lost all her colonies. Turkey joined the Central Powers, and Italy the Allies. A powerful British fleet was defeated at Dardenelles. Russia was defeated in a number of battles. Thereupon, Russia withdrew from the war and concluded the treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany, surrendering a number of territories on the Baltic to Germany. Situation in 1918 : After the treaty of Brest-Litovsk, Germany made an all out attack against the Allies and they advanced to within 40 miles of Paris. In April 1918, Marshal Foch was appointed Commander-in-Chief of the forces. The appointment of Marshal Foch was the turning point of the war. The Allies beat back the Germans from the Marne and stormed the Hindenburg Line. The Turks, Bulgarians and the Austrians were defeated. The Germans at last made peace with the Allies at the famous Hall of Versailles on November 11th 1919. An armistice was concluded, and the great war came to an end. A revolution broke out in Germany and the Kaiser fled to Poland and republics were set up in all states of Germany. Results of the War 1. Huge loss of life and property : The war was not confined to the army alone. It affected the civil population and the national economy of many countries was destroyed. 2. Spread of Nationalism : The outstanding result of the was the spread of nationalism and the destruction of the four great empires – German (Kaiser), Russian (Tsar), Turkey and Austria. 3. Nazism in Germany : The Germans were discontented with the Kaiser for signing the disgraceful Treaty of Versailles. The discontent paved the way for the Nazi dictatorship of Hitler. 4. Facism in Italy : The Italians accused their government for their diplomatic failure in the Paris Peace Conference. Benito Mussolini marched with his Fascists to Rome and established the Fascist dictatorship. 5.Promotion of Democracy : Many European states introduced democracy as the world now seemed safe for democracy. 6.Birth of Welfare States : The countries in Europe became fed up with the policy states and aimed at the welfare states. 7. The Russian revolution of 1917 was another outcome of the war. It threw the tsarist region and established the communist government. 8. The U.S.A emerged as a world power interest in promoting peace. 9.The map of Europe was completely recast by the allied statesman at the Peace Conference. 10. Search for the international co-operation : After the war, the statesman of the world felt there would be peace and goodwill. Thus was born the League of Nations to bring peace on Earth and goodwill among mankind.
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The first World war was inflicted untold miseries on the people. So at the end of the world war, the statesman of the world wanted to establish a new world where there would be peace and co-operation. The horrors of the war made the allied nations who met at Paris to declare the first world war should be a war to end all wars. They were very anxious to set up a permanent body to maintain peace in the world. It was president Woodrow Wilson of the U.S who gave form and shape to this idea. Organization of the League The League consisted of 63 members. It comprised the following Bodies. 1) The League assembly consisted of three representatives of every member state which met once at Geneva. 2) The League council consisted of nine members, five of whom were permanent and rest temporary representing the smaller states. 3) The international secretariat to prepare and execute different businesses of the League. 4) The international court of justice was set up at the Hague to decide international disputes It consisted of 15 judges elected by the assembly for a period of nine years. 5) The international Labor organization contained representative of capitals and labor to provide industrial arbitration and improve labor conditions. Achievements of the League Though the League was not able to bring about universal disarmament and to promote peace, it was able to achieve many great things during the 15 years of its existence 1) The international court of justice handled more than 30 cases and delivered in some cases judgment and in some others advisory opinions. 2) The League of nations prevented a war between Greece and Bulgaria in1925 and it settled the Swedish Finnish dispute between Allan Isles. 3) Through the International Labor Organization, it was able to improve the condition of laborers in many parts of the world 4) Through the mandatory system, the League of Nations was able to improve the condition of improved people. 5) Several million prisoners of war were repatriated under the supervision of the League of Nations. 6) It successfully supervised plebiscites in dispute area. 7) It helped in encouraging cultural and literary activities by the exchange of scientific and literary information. 8) The international court of justice solved the number of international disputes which caused tension Failures - Causes 1) The first cause for the failure of the League was that the covenant of the League was incorporated with the treaty of Versailles. Germany and Italy regarded the League as “a Victors Club” to preserve the spoils of war and when the Fascists [in Italy] and Nazis [in Germany] came to the power, they wrecked the League by aggressive action. 2) The second cause was that America the organizer was not the member of the League. The absence of America was a great handicap from the beginning. 3) Germany and the U.S.S.R two major powers were kept out from a long time. Perhaps this was a great blunder. 4) The League of Nations was based upon parliamentary tradition and democratic practices while Britain and France had experienced Parliamentary Government, the dictatorship countries had no such experience and hence they did not fit easily into the League system. 5) At a later stage Japan and Germany withdrew from the League and flouted International code of behavior. 6) The League of nations had no such military power to enforce it’s will upon the rebellious states. It was not a super state. 7) The rule that the decisions of the League council must be unanimous was a serious drawback, for one member state by it’s Veto power could prevent any action being taken. 8) Most of the League members talked highly but acted meanly. There was no sincerity among them. ”Self before Service” appeared to be their motto. Hence the League of nations became the League of Nations. 9) In regard to disarmament, the League permitted Poland and Czech to large army but have prohibited Germany to have powerful army and navy. It allowed the domination of Britain and France.
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The second world war was a result of the European dictators who seized powers at the end of the First World War. In fact the First World War led to the second world war. Some of the fundamental causes of the world war were the following.
1.Desire For Colonies and Markets: Germany, Italy and Japan did not benefit from the First World War. Germany was defeated in final stages of the war and was forced to give up all her colonies. Again the great depression of 1929 greatly affected these 3 countries. Most of the colonies had already been annexed by Britain, France and Holland. So they form the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo axis and started on a career of aggression. 2.Unjust nature of the Treaty of Versailles: The Treaty of Versailles humiliated and disgraced Germany. It was this discontent of the people that gave rise to Hitler and his Nazi party. Hitler shattered the Versailles settlement and committed acts of aggression which led to the war. Thus the Versailles settlement contained the seeds of the Second World War. 3. Failure of the league of Nations: The League of Nations had authority only over the member states. Italy and Germany withdrew from the league and committed acts of aggression. 4. The problem of Minorities: The Peace-Treaties of 1919-1920 recognized the principle of self determination. The Pole majority in Poland and the Zech majority in Czechoslovakia was responsible for the creation of these 2 nations. But the German minority in these 2 nations created trouble. Hitler took advantage of these principles and annexed Sutherland which had a German majority. 5. Immediate Cause: The aggressive actions of Hitler and Mussolini led to the war. Hitler remilitarized Rhineland in 1936 which had been forbidden by the Versailles Settlement. He overran the whole of Austria and occupied it in 1938. He annexed Sutherland in 1938 and established a German protectorate over Czechoslovakia in 1939. In the meantime Mussolini annexed Abyssinia in 1936 and Albania in 1939 and also allied himself with Hitler. In 1937, Hitler formed the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis and started on a career of aggression. Course of the war: The Second World War was global war. All kinds of weapons were used and the war expenditure of each country was colossal. Air superiority counted more than any other factors in deciding the results of the war. Hitler who was well prepared had spectacular successes in the beginning. But later as the allies gathered strength, he was defeated. War in Poland: Hitler knew he could not wage war on 2 fronts. So he concluded a peace trusty with Russia. Having secured the Eastern frontier, he invaded Poland in 1939. The Soviet Union also attacked Poland which was overran and divided within 3 weeks between Germany and the Soviet Union. Stalin then overran the Baltic states. Finland also fell victim to the Soviet Union and was annexed in 1940. Hitler was not able to halt the growing power of Stalin as he was dealing with France and Britain in the west Hitler’s victories in the west: In April 1940, the Germans stuck in the west. Then overran Denmark and Norway and attacked the Netherlands and Belgium. By June they invaded France and in a series of attacks defeated them. Paris fell on 14th June 1940. During the darkest hour for France, Mussolini declared war on these 2 countries. France was divided between the Italians and Germans. Britain was in a desperate position. The Germans began an aerial bombardment of Britain. But the R.A.F hurled back the invasion. The Battle Of Britain was the turning point of the war. War in Africa: By the end of 1940, British troops under Wavell expelled the Italian forces from Eritrea, Abyssinia and Somaliland. Hitler’s Invasion of Russia: In June 1941 Hitler invaded the Soviet Union and advanced to about 480 km on the Russian Front. The Russian Invasion proved Hitler’s undergoing. The Russians adopted the Scorched Earth Policy. The hunger-stricken German army was forced to halt at Stalingrad. Japan and U.S.A enter the war: The United States had been giving an all out and to Britain without actually entering the war. In December 1941, the Japanese had attacked a number of V.S Bases at Pearl Harbor and Hawaii bringing the United States into the Conflict against the Axis Powers. Meanwhile the Japanese overran Malaya, Singapore, Philippines, Indo-China, Burma and bombed Colombo, Vizagapatinam and Chittagong. The turn of the tide: The advancing German Army in North Africa was checked at Alexandria. The advancing German army was turned back at Stalingrad. The axis powers slowly began to loose their grip over allies. Romell and his army, were driven from North Africa by the British. Rome was captured by the allies, but was spared on account of it’s great cultural heritage and it’s containing the Vatican city and the Pope. Mussolini, the Italian dictator was shot dead by his own people. Germany was invaded by the Anglo-American forces from the west and Russian Forces from the East. Berlin was finally captured by the allies in May 1945 and Hitler died fighting in the streets of Berlin. The war in Europe ended in May 1945. Final struggle with Japan: In the Pacific are, U.S, Naval victories in the battles of Coral Sea and Midway Highland halted Japanese Progress. American troops began to recapture Japanese occupied islands in a series of grim battles. In august 1945, President Harry.S.Truman ordered atomic bombs to be dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. A few days later the Japanese surrendered at Tokyo Bay and World War II officially came to an end. Results: The Second World War was most widespread and destructive in history. It was a global War. It overthrew Fascism, Nazism, Imperialism. Italy lost all her colonies and became a Republic. Germany was divided into East Germany and West Germany. East Germany is under Communist influence and West Germany is a democratic Republic. Japan was deprived of her conquests. She was occupied by an American Army and was forced to accept an American Constitution. Russia and U.S.A became world powers at the end of the war. To prevent communist influence from spreading in Europe. America extended the Marshall Aid Program to the European democracies. The war quickened the Freedom Movements in Asia and Africa. There arose a number of free states in Asia like India, Pakistan, Ceylon, Burma and Indo-China. It gave birth to the U.N.O: The second World War was a global war. It was the most widespread and destructive war in History. The horrors of the war made the Allied Statesman who met in Paris to create a new world where there would be peace and goodwill. Thus was born the U.N.O to bring” peace on Earth and goodwill among mankind.
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